The spread of religion, aided by the increase in trade, often acted as a unifying social force. Throughout East Asia, the development of Neo-Confucianism solidified a cultural identity. Islam created a new cultural world known as Dar al-Islam, which transcended political and linguistic boundaries in Asia and Africa. Christianity and the Catholic Church served as unifying forces in Europe.
Centralized empires like the Arab Caliphates and the Song Dynasty built on the successful models of the past, while decentralized areas (Western Europe and Japan) developed political organization to more effectively deal with their unique issues. The peoples of the Americas saw new, large-scale political structures develop, such as the Inca Empire in the Andes and the Mississippian culture in North America.
The movement of people greatly altered the world politically and demographically. Traveling groups, such as the Turks and Mongols, disrupted much of Asia’s existing political structure. Turkic peoples founded the Mumluk and Delhi Sultanates. The recovery from the Mongol period introduced political structures that defined many areas for centuries to follow.
There was tremendous growth in long-distance trade. Technological developments such as the compass improved shipbuilding technology, and gunpowder shaped the development of the world. Trade through the Silk Road, the Indian Ocean, the trans-Saharan routes, and the Mediterranean Sea led to the spread of ideas, religions, and technology. Interregional cultural exchanges, represented by early world travelers like Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo, increased due to the Mongol Conquests.
War, disease, and famine caused massive social and political upheaval throughout Eurasia. The Black Death killed over a third of the European population, and the resulting labor shortfall increased the bargaining power of peasants, diminishing the system of feudalism. The Mongol Conquests led to a massive death toll from Korea to Russia to the Middle East, weakening many regions for centuries to come as European powers expanded outward.
Western Europe and China saw significant economic and political recoveries. The Italian city-states grew prosperous enough to support the burgeoning Renaissance, which was partly inspired by ancient Greek works recovered from Islamic scholars. The Ming Dynasty experienced a cultural flowering that resulted in great works of art. The Ming also supported major naval expeditions by Zheng He.
Key Terms: Period 1 (1200-1450)
Remember that the AP World History exam tests you on the depth of your knowledge, not just your ability to recall facts. While we have provided brief definitions here, you will need to know these terms in even more depth for the AP exam, including how terms connect to broader historical themes and understandings.
Cultural Developments and Belief Systems
Neo-Confucianism: Popular during the Tang Dynasty; fused elements of Buddhism and Confucianism.
Catholic Church: The largest of the three main branches of Christianity; centered in Rome and led by the pope; found most often in Europe, the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of East Asia.
Eastern Orthodox Church: The third largest of the three main branches of Christianity; originally based in the Byzantine Empire; found most often in Russia, Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and parts of Central Asia.
Shi’a: One of the two main branches of Islam; rejects the first three Sunni caliphs and regards Ali, the fourth caliph, as Muhammad’s first true successor; most commonly found in Iran, but otherwise constitutes 10 to 15 percent of Muslims worldwide.
Sunni: One of the two main branches of Islam; commonly described as orthodox and differs from Shi’a in its understanding of the Sunnah and in its acceptance of the first three caliphs; is by far the most common branch of Islam worldwide.
Civilizations in the Americas
Chinampa: A form of Mesoamerican agriculture in which farmers cultivated crops in rectangular plots of land on lake beds; hosted corns, beans, chilis, squash, tomatoes, and more; provided up to seven harvests per year.
Mit’a: A mandatory public service system in the Inca Empire requiring all people below the age of 50 to serve for two months out of the year; not to be confused with the mita, a forced labor system practiced by conquistadors in the former Inca Empire.
Civilizations in East Asia
Mandate of Heaven: Ancient Chinese concept stating that the right to rule was granted by the heavens; used to explain the rise of every Chinese dynasty, including the Qing in 1644.
Grand Canal: World’s longest canal, connecting the fertile Huang He River to the highly populated cities in the north; allowed grain to be shipped easily.
Champa rice: Introduced to China from Vietnam; allowed the Chinese to have two harvests per year, dramatically improving output; combined with an improved infrastructure, led to a significant growth of the Chinese population.
Islamic Golden Age
Al-Andalus: Islamic state located in modern-day Spain; led by the Berbers; renowned for its achievements in science, mathematics, and trade.
Astrolabe: Introduced to the Islamic world in the 700s, where it was perfected by mathematicians; used by astronomers and navigators to determine latitude through inclination.
Trans-Saharan trade: Trade network starting in the 400s and 500s; thrived due to an organized network of camel caravans carrying gold, salt, cloth, slaves, and other valuables; allowed the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali to thrive, and as Islam spread to Africa, allowed its teachings to impact the lives of kings and traders.
Europe during the Late Middle Ages
Feudalism: Political and economic system that developed as a result of the decentralization and collapse of the Western Roman Empire; lords, usually noblemen, protected vassals in exchange for mandatory labor or military service; vassals received a fief, or grant of land.
Bills of exchange: Written guarantees of payment that were essentially the forerunners of modern-day bank checks; helped facilitate trade; known as sakk in the Islamic world; also used in China during this period.
Crusades: Holy wars launched by Pope Urban II in 1095 that called for Christians to reclaim the Holy Land of Israel from Muslims; its four campaigns, lasting over 100 years, were unsuccessful; stimulated European-Muslim trade and reintroduced Europeans to wisdom that had been last taught during the Classical period.
Nomadic and Traveling Empires
Ottomans: Group of Anatolian Turks who, in their dedication to Islam, attacked the weakening Byzantine Empire and captured Constantinople in 1453; expanded to create an empire in the Middle East and Southeast Europe; collapsed after World War I.
Mongols: Group of Central Asian nomads from Mongolia who, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, conquered large portions of the Asian continent; four empires, centered on Russia, China, Persia, and the Central Asian steppes, were led by Khan’s successors until the Mongol Empire collapsed into disunity and civil war.
Genghis Khan: Mongol clan leader who united the clans and made the Mongols the most feared force in Asia; under his leadership, the Mongol Empire expanded greatly into China, Persia, Central Asia, and Tibet; sons ruled the Four Khanates that followed; grandson, Kublai Khan, became leader of the Yuan Dynasty in 1271.
Civilizations in Africa
Mansa Musa: Ruling from 1312 to 1337, he was the most famous of the Mali emperors; capital city, Timbuktu, was a center of trade, culture, and education; most famous for going on pilgrimage to Mecca (a practice that few Muslims in his time actually did) carrying a large caravan with satchels of gold, which he used to fund schools and mosques across North Africa.
Swahili city-states: Cities in East Africa (present- day Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania) that became bustling ports due to interchanges between Bantu and Arab mariners; in an effort to facilitate trade, the Bantus created a hybrid language, Swahili, that allowed them to communicate with the Arabs (a language that is still spoken by over 80 million East Africans).
Interregional Economic and Cultural Exchange
Melaka: Located in modern-day Malaysia; port city that became a waystation for sea traders from China and India in the fourteenth century.
Bubonic plague: Disease that spread from China to Europe through rats and decimated Europe’s population; ended the feudal system and led many people to question religion; also known as the Black Plague or the Black Death.
Ibn Battuta: Islamic traveler who, in the four- teenth century, visited the kingdom of Mansa Musa in the Mali Empire; his writings stimulated an interest in African trade.
Marco Polo: Venetian merchant who spent over 20 years traveling the Silk Road through the Mongol Empire, where he actually served on the court of its ruler, Kublai Khan; his efforts stimulated interest in trade with China.
Recovery and Renaissance in Asia and Europe
Renaissance: A period of artistic and scien- tific self-discovery and relearning of Classi- cal wisdom, particularly from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries; stimulated by the Crusades and soldiers’ exposure to Muslim advances in math, science, and the arts; also led to questioning of the nature of religion and natural phenomena.
In matters of principal, stand like a rock; in matters of taste, swim with the current. Give up money, give up fame, give up science, give up earth itself and all it contains, rather than do an immoral act. And never suppose that in any situation, or under any circumstances, it is best for you to do a dishonorable thing. Whenever you are to do a thing, though it can never be known but to yourself, ask yourself how you would act were all the world looking at you, and act accordingly.
Duty, honor, country: Those three hallowed words reverently dictate what you ought to be, what you can be, what you will be. They are your rallying point to build courage when courage seems to fail, to regain faith when there seems to be little cause for faith, to create hope when hope becomes forlorn.
Article 5 of the Code of Conduct: When questioned, should I become a prisoner of war, I am required to give name, rank, Service number, and date of birth. I will evade answering further questions to the upmost of my ability. I will make no oral or written statements disloyal to my country and its allies or harmful to their cause.
Article 6 of the Code of Conduct: I will never forget that I am an American, fighting for freedom, responsible for my actions, and dedicated to the principles which made my country free. I will trust in my God and in the United States of America.
Sadness, a universal yet deeply personal emotion, often arrives unexpectedly, lingering as a shadow in life’s bright moments. It may arise from – loss, unmet expectations, or the inevitable passage of time, each adding a unique shade to its depth. Unlike fleeting happiness, sadness encourages pause, inviting introspection, and a profound connection to oneself. In a world that often prioritizes joy, sadness teaches us essential lessons in empathy, patience, and resilience. It reminds us of what truly matters, revealing people, and memories that hold genuine value. Through sadness, we gain a capacity for compassion, learning not only to heal ourselves, but also to support others in their silent battles. Embracing sadness, rather than dismissing it, we grow, finding it to be a fundamental thread in life’s tapestry that adds - richness, meaning, and depth to our understanding of joy.
"We are like the mechanism of a watch: Each part is essential," said brother Salomon. As in a watch, every part of the business moved in concert with every other, and the inner workings were invisible to the world, which only saw the movement of the hands. While other rich and powerful families suffered irrecoverable downturns during the tumultous first half of the nineteenth century, the tight-knit Rothschilds managed not only to preserve but to expand their unprecedented wealth.
In 1824 James Rothschild decided it was time to get married. This presented a problem for the Rothschild, since it meant incorporating an outsider into the Rothschild clan, an outsider who could betray its secrets. James therefore decided to marry within the family, and chose the daughter of his brother Salomon. The brothers were ecstatic this was the perfect solution to their marriage problems. James's choice now became the family policy: Two years later, Nathan married off his daughter to Salomon's son. In the years to come, the five brothers arranged eighteen matches among their children, sixteen of these being contracted between first cousins.
This widespread network, of course, opened the Rothschilds to the very danger of which their father had warned them: diffusion, division, dissension. They avoided this danger, and established themselves as the most powerful force in European finance and politics, by once again resorting to the strategy of the ghetto excluding outsiders, concentrating their forces. The Rothschilds established the fastest courier system in Europe, allowing them to get news of events before all their competitors. They held a virtual monopoly on information. And their internal communications and correspondence were written in Frankfurt Yiddish, and in a code that only the brothers could understand it. "Even the shewdest bankers cannot find their way through the Rothschild maze," admitted a financier who had tried to infiltrate the clan.
Once Mayer Amschel's sons controlled the family business, they decided that the key to wealth on a larger scale was to secure a foothold in the finances of Europe as a whole, rather than being tied to any one country or prince. Of the five brothers, Nathan had already opened up shop in London. In 1813 James moved to Paris. Amschel remained in Frankfurt, Salomon established himself in Vienna, and Karl, the youngest son, went to Naples. With each sphere of influence covered, they could tighten their hold on Europe's financial markets.
First, Mayer Amschel allied himself with one family, the powerful princes of Thurn und Taxis. Instead of spreading his services out, he made himself these princes' primary banker. Second, he entrusted none of his business to outsiders, using only his children and close relatives. The more unified and tight-knit the family, the more powerful it would become. Soon Mayer Amschel's five sons were running the business. And when Mayer Amschel lay dying, in 1812, he refused to name a principal heir, instead setting up all of his sons to continue the family tradition, so that they would stay united and would resist the dangers of diffusion and of infiltration by outsiders.
Observance Of The Law
The Rothschild banking family had humble beginnings in the Jewish ghetto of Frankfurt, Germany. The city's harsh laws made it impossible for Jews to mingle outside the ghetto, but the Jews had turned this into a virtue it made them self-reliant, and zealous to preserve their culture at all costs. Mayer Amschel, the first of the Rothschilds to accumulate wealth by lending money, in the late eighteenth century, well understood the power that comes from this kind of concentration and cohesion.
Reported speech, also known as indirect speech, is a way of recounting or paraphrasing what someone else has said, without using their exact words. In English, this usually means changing certain elements of the original sentence to match the context of the new speaker or situation. When moving from direct speech (the original words) to reported speech, we adjust elements like time expressions, place references, verb tenses, and pronouns to accurately convey the message. This transformation is essential for clarity and correctness, especially when reporting events in the past.
In reported speech, verb tenses often shift back to reflect the time at which the original statement was made, particularly when the reporting verb is in the past (e.g., He said). For instance, in direct speech, someone might say, “I am reading a book.” When we report this, it would change to “He said he was reading a book.” Here, the present continuous am reading becomes the past continuous was reading to match the reporting context. This shift in tenses is commonly referred to as “backshifting” and is typically necessary for sentences reported in the past tense. However, if the reporting verb is in the present (e.g., He says), backshifting is not required, and we may keep the original tenses.
Pronoun changes are also crucial in reported speech, as they ensure the sentence correctly reflects who is speaking or being referred to. Consider the statement, “I love my job.” If Maria said this, it would become “Maria said she loved her job” when reported. Here, I changes to she and my changes to her to make the sentence coherent for the reader or listener. These adjustments in pronouns are necessary for accurately representing who is involved in the original conversation and who is doing the reporting.
Time expressions frequently need adjustment as well. When reporting speech, expressions like today, yesterday, and tomorrow change to words that reflect the passage of time, such as that day, the day before, and the next day, respectively. For example, if someone says, “I will see you tomorrow,” in reported speech, this becomes, “He said he would see me the next day.” Adjusting time expressions in this way ensures that the reported sentence makes sense based on when the conversation is retold.
Place expressions like here and there may also change when converting direct to reported speech. For instance, if a person says, “I’ll meet you here,” we would report it as, “He said he would meet me there,” if the reporting takes place in a different location. This change helps orient the listener or reader to the new context of the reported conversation and avoids confusion about where events took place.
Another aspect to consider is the reporting of questions. When changing direct questions into reported questions, the structure often changes from question form to statement form. For example, “Where are you going?” becomes “She asked where he was going.” Note that question marks are removed in reported questions, and word order is adjusted as well. This shift is necessary because reported questions are statements about inquiries rather than direct questions themselves.
Commands and requests also undergo changes in reported speech. Rather than simply reporting the words, we use phrases like told or asked to introduce the command or request. For instance, “Close the door,” becomes, “He told me to close the door.” Here, told serves as the reporting verb, and we use the infinitive form, to close, to report the command. These adjustments convey the directive’s intent while maintaining correct grammar in reported form.
In summary, reported speech involves changing elements like verb tenses, pronouns, time and place expressions, and question structure to accurately reflect the context of the conversation. These modifications allow for clear communication, ensuring the listener or reader understands who is speaking and what was originally said. Mastering reported speech is an essential skill for expressing conversations that occurred in the past, retelling others’ words, or communicating in formal writing.
Happiness, often described as a fleeting emotion or a lasting state of mind is one of humanity's most cherished pursuits. It manifests differently for each individual some find it in simple pleasures like a warm meal or a gentle breeze while others seek it in accomplishments, relationships or self-discovery. Philosophers and psychologists alike have pondered the roots of happiness suggesting that it springs less from external circumstances and more from an inner sense of peace and purpose. Studies suggest that happiness is closely linked to gratitude, mindfulness and meaningful connections with others. However it is not a destination but a journey often cultivated by resilience and a positive mindset. True happiness lies in embracing both joys and challenges with equal grace, finding beauty in the present moment and nurturing a compassionate outlook toward oneself and the world.
In Catalonia here were different languages and different traditions. They are also one of Spain's wealthiest regions and the financial crash spread the resentment and separatism.
In 2006, Spanish government granted the Catalonians even power and economic opportunity. However, in 2010 the Spanish government took most of their autonomy away, and they began to protest and ask for independence by speaking out. The government imprisoned 9 separatist leaders and said they denied their request for independence.
Cultural-The Basques have their own language, and most Spanish people can't speak it making the Basques very isolated in what they could influence and who they could communicate with.
They also have had a very violent history with the rest of Spin because of the ETA terrorist group, which made Spain slow to give independence or make any big decisions revolving around the Basque's autonomy.
Economic-In Catalonia, the area creates 19 percent of all income that Spain receives, and Barcelona is one of the highest tourism destinations in Spain.
Cultural- Additionally, 16 percent of Spain's population lives there, but they do not speak the same language which causes them to be divided.
The Basques pushed for independence, and they got some autonomy over their people, but they did not break apart because of the violence from the ETA terrorist group that had previously caused caution for the Spanish government. The terrorism caused Spain to only give some autonomy to Spain to satisfy the ETA, and after which they broke up, but Spain still considered the threat to be there. The Basques wanted independence because they speak a different language and did not believe the same things as most Catholic Spaniards did. Catalonia also wanted independence following the Basques, but they had strong economic ties to the Spanish income and the highest tourism destination in Spain, making Spain not want to lose control over their land.
It was an April morning when they told us we should go
As I turn to you, you smiled at me
How could we say no?
Oh, the fun to have
To live the dreams we always had
Oh, the songs to sing
When we at last return again
Slipping off a glancing kiss
To those who claim they know
Below the streets that steam and hiss
The devil's in his hole
Oh, to sail away
To sandy lands and other days
Oh, to touch the dream
Hides inside and never seen, yeah
Into the sun, the south, the north
At last the birds have flown
The shackles of commitment fell
In pieces on the ground
Oh, to ride the wind
To tread the air above the din
Oh, to laugh aloud
Dancing as we fought the crowds, yeah
To seek the man whose pointing hand
The giant step unfolds
With guidance from the curving path
That churns up into stone
If one bell should ring
In celebration for a king
So fast the heart should beat
As proud the head with heavy feet, yeah
Days went by when you and I
Bathed in eternal summer's glow
As far away and distant
Our mutual child did grow
Oh the sweet refrain
Soothes the soul and calms the pain
Oh Albion remains
Sleeping now to rise again
Wandering and wandering
What place to rest the search?
The mighty arms of Atlas
Hold the heavens from the earth
For the mighty arms of Atlas
Hold the heavens from the earth
From the earth
For the Chinese, the fate of the kingdom of Wu serves as an elemental lesson on what happens when you dissipate your forces on several fronts, losing sight of distant dangers for the sake of present gain. "If you are not in danger," says Sun-tzu, "do not fight." It is almost a physical law: What is bloated beyond its proportions inevitably collapses. The mind must not wander from goal to goal, or be distracted by success from its sense of purpose and proportion. What is concentrated, coherent, and connected to its past has power. What is dissipated, divided, and distended rots and falls to the ground. The bigger it bloats, the harder it falls.
'Throw them out': What led to scuffle between BJP MLAs, marshals in Jammu and Kashmir assembly? Chaos in Jammu and Kashmir assembly: A brawl broke out between Bharatiya Janata Party MLAs and marshals of the Jammu and Kashmir assembly on Thursday, November 7, after the Speaker directed the eviction of Opposition members who had stormed the well during their protest over the special status resolution. BJP MLAs pin down marshal after a brawl broke out over a banner on the restoration of Article 370 displayed by Awami Ittehad Party (AIP) MLA and brother of Lok Sabha MP Engineer Rashid, Khursheed Ahmad Sheikh in the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly session, in Srinagar on Thursday. (ANI)
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Interpretation
The story of Wu is a paradigm of all the empires that have come to ruin by overreaching. Drunk with success and sick with ambition, such empires expand to grotesque proportions and meet a ruin that is total. This is what happened to ancient Athens, which lusted for the faraway island of Sicily and ended up losing its empire. The Romans stretched the boundaries of their empire to encompass vast territories; in doing so they increased their vulnerability, and the chances of invasion from yet another barbarian tribe. Their useless expansion led their empire into oblivion.
As Wu Tzu-hsiu had predicted, within a few years a Yueh army passed beneath the gate of Wu. As the barbarians surrounded the palace, the king remembered his minister's last words and felt the dead man's disembodied eyes watching his disgrace. Unable to bear his shame, the king killed himself, "covering his face so that he would not have to meet the reproachful gaze of his minister in the next world."
While concerns about overconsumption are valid, I agree with Claire that it isn't our most pressing societal challenge. Instead, I believe we need to focus on the growing economic inequality, which directly shapes consumption patterns across different social classes.
The reality is complex: while some wealthy individuals engage in excessive consumption through luxury purchases and disposable goods, many people worldwide struggle to meet their basic needs. Factory workers in developing countries, for instance, carefully budget their limited resources just to provide necessities for their families. This stark contrast supports Claire's observation that overconsumption is primarily concentrated among the wealthy.
While environmental concerns about landfills and energy usage raised by the first student are important, addressing economic inequality could naturally help regulate consumption patterns. When resources are more equitably distributed, people tend to make more mindful purchasing decisions.
Therefore, rather than viewing excessive consumption as an isolated problem, we should examine it as a symptom of broader economic disparities in our society. Addressing inequality could lead to more sustainable consumption patterns across all social classes.
In the year 490, Wu Tzu-hsiu sent his son away to safety in the kingdom of Ch'i. In doing so he sent the king a signal that he disapproved of the war, and that he believed the king's selfish ambition was leading Wu to ruin. The king, sensing betrayal, lashed out at his minister, accusing him of a lack of loyalty and, in a fit of anger, ordered him to kill himself. Wu Tzu-hsiu obeyed his king, but before he plunged the knife into his chest, he cried, "Tear out my eyes, oh King, and fix them on the gate of Wu, so that I may see the triumphant entry of Yueh."
